How can i Enhance my Vocabulary

Easy Ways to Improve and Expand Your Vocabulary:
Seven Tips for Learning New Words

Communicate (speak and write) more clearly and concisely using these seven tips for learning new words... easy ways to improve and expand your vocabulary.

by Randall S. Hansen, Ph.D. Looking for tips for improving your vocabulary? Whether you are trying to strengthen and broaden your vocabulary for school or personal growth, the key is a commitment to regularly learning new words. Why expand your knowledge and use of words? You'll be able to communicate (speak and write) more clearly and concisely, people will understand you more easily, and you will increase the perception (and reality) that you are an intelligent person. Besides, learning new words is a fun activity -- and one you can even do with the people around you. Challenge a friend, family member, or roommate to learn new words with you.

This article reviews seven easy ways to improve your vocabulary and learn new words.

1. Read, read, and read. The more you read -- especially novels and literary works, but also magazines and newspapers -- the more words you'll be exposed to. As you read and uncover new words, use a combination of attempting to derive meaning from the context of the sentence as well as from looking up the definition in a dictionary.

 2. Keep a dictionary and thesaurus handy. Use whatever versions you prefer -- in print, software, or online. When you uncover a new word, look it up in the dictionary to get both its pronunciation and its meaning(s). Next, go to the thesaurus and find similar words and phrases -- and their opposites (synonyms and antonyms, respectively) -- and learn the nuances among the words.

 3. Use a journal. It's a good idea to keep a running list of the new words you discover so that you can refer back to the list and slowly build them into your everyday vocabulary. Plus, keeping a journal of all your new words can provide positive reinforcement for learning even more words -- especially when you can see how many new words you've already learned.

 4. Learn a word a day. Using a word-a-day calendar or Website -- or developing your own list of words to learn -- is a great technique many people use to learn new words. This approach may be too rigid for some, so even if you do use this method, don't feel you must learn a new word every day. (Find some word-a-day Websites at the end of this article.)  

5. Go back to your roots. One of the most powerful tools for learning new words -- and for deciphering the meaning of other new words -- is studying Latin and Greek roots. Latin and Greek elements (prefixes, roots, and suffixes) are a significant part of the English language and a great tool for learning new words. (Follow these links for the sections of this site that provide English Vocabulary Derived from Latin and English Vocabulary Derived from Greek.)  

6. Play some games. Word games that challenge you and help you discover new meanings and new words are a great and fun tool in your quest for expanding your vocabulary. Examples include crossword puzzles, anagrams, word jumble, Scrabble, and Boggle. (Find some word-game Websites at the end of this article.)

 7. Engage in conversations. Simply talking with other people can help you learn discover new words. As with reading, once you hear a new word, remember to jot it down so that you can study it later -- and then slowly add the new word to your vocabulary.

Final Thoughts On Improving and Expanding Your Vocabulary

You hold the key to a better vocabulary. By using the tips outlined in this article, you should be well on your way to discovering and learning new words to expand your vocabulary and strengthen your use of the English language. Finally, remember that you must practice putting your new words into your writing and speaking or risk not retaining them in your brain. Use repetition exercises when you first learn a word -- and consider other learning techniques, such as index cards, recording yourself reciting your words, association games, and mnemonics.

Some Good Tips to write Eassy

The key words in the title are practical and exam. Last week I ran a “competition” to write an essay on aid and poverty. The essays I received were spectacularly good and I do suggest you check them out in the comments section. My one worry though was were they really practical essays in an exam. My essay, which you will find below, is I think much simpler than almost all the essays I received – and perhaps a more practical model for exams.
I should add that these are mostly band score 8.0 writing tips and are written especially for candidates who are aiming high. The moral is:

the road to band score 8.0 often means doing the simple things well

1. Read – write – read – write – read – write – read – write – read – write – read

What does this mean? It means that you should go back and read the paragraph you have just written before you start the next one. You may think that this is a waste of time. If so, you’d be wrong.

1. It’s important to link your paragraphs together – what more practical way to do that than just read what you have written?
2. It helps you with words for the next paragraph – it is good to repeat some words as this improves your coherence. Look at my sample essay to see how I repeat/reflect language. In one paragraph I talk about the short term, this makes it easy to move onto the long term in the next paragraph.
3. You may also want to check out my series of lessons on the process of writing IELTS essays – where you will find a much more detailed explanation of this,

2. Don’t be smart, be clear – select your best idea

One of my very first posts/articles on this site was headed “IELTS is not a test of intelligence”. While the post itself now looks a little old, the advice is still good. You are being tested on the quality of your English, not on the quality of your ideas.
This advice is particularly important for candidates who come from an academic background where they are used to being graded on quality and quantity of ideas. IELTS is different: it is quite possible to write a band 9.0 essay and not include some key ideas, let alone all the ideas.
The practical advice here is to select your best idea and write about that. That means not writing everything you know – leave some ideas out. Don’t worry if it is not your best explanation, worry about whether it is your clearest explanation.

3. Write about what you know – relax about ideas

This is a similar idea. IELTS is an international exam (that’s the “I” in IELTS) and the questions are written to be answered by anyone around the world. Some people stress about finding ideas. They shouldn’t. The ideas you need are generally simple (eg”I disagree”, “This is not a good idea”).
The practical solution is to think about what YOU know and what YOUR experience is. If you look at the question, this is what it tells you to do. If you come from Bonn, write about Bonn; if you come from Ulan Bator, write about Ulan Bator!

4. Examples are easier to write than explanations

In an exam you are under pressure. You want to make things as easy for yourself as possible. One practical idea to achieve this is to focus as much on examples as explanations when you write. Why?
It’s simply harder if you only think “because”. Some of the ideas may be very complex and, under pressure, it can be difficult to explain these with reasons. What may happen is that your sentences become too long and the ideas confused.
The practical bit is to concentrate as much on examples. This is a good idea as examples tend to be easier to write as you are simply describing situations. You should also note that the instructions tell you to use examples! All you need to do is make sure that your examples are relevant to the main idea.

5. Don’t write too much – the examiner is paid by the minute

There is no upper word limit I know of, but it really isn’t a good idea to write 350 words or more. Here’s why:

1. Examiners will only spend so much time looking at any essay. Write too much and they will read what you wrote “less carefully”. It is easier to read/grade a 300 word essay than a 400 word essay!
2. The more you write, the more likely you are to make language mistakes.
3. The more you write, the more likely you are to go off topic. The examiner won’t read/grade anything that doesn’t directly relate to the question.
4.  If you write less, you give yourself more time to choose the best words – and that’s what you are being graded on.
5. If you write less, you give yourself more time to go back and check what you have written.

6. Writer – know yourself

One of the most famous philosophical thoughts is “know yourself”. How does this apply to exam writing? Did Plato really have IELTS in mind when he wrote his dialogues? Well, no, but…
The idea is that you should check for your mistakes when you write. The practical part here is that you shouldn’t check for mistakes generally – that’s too hard and probably a waste of time in the exam. What isn’t a waste of time though is to look for mistakes you know you can correct – the ones you normally make!
The really practical thing is to have your own checklist in your head before you start writing.

7. See the whole essay in your head before you start writing

It’s very important that your essay is a whole – that all the bits fit together. If you don’t do that, you may lose significant marks for both coherence and task response.
This means planning of course. Planning bothers some people and bores others. There are different ways to do this, but at the very least have a map of your essay in your head.

8. Focus on the backbone of your essay

This is a related point. All the essay matters of course, but perhaps some bits matter more than others. I’d suggest the practical thing to do is concentrate on the backbone of your essay, the bits that help you write better and the examiner to understand better. The backbone is:

1.  The introduction: this should identify the question and outline your position. Don’t rush it as it is the first thing the examiner will read. First impressions count.
2. The first/topic sentences of each paragraph: these should be clear and to the point. They should identify exactly what that paragraph is about and show how it relates to the rest of the essay. The practical tip is to keep the detail/clever ideas for the body of the paragraph. Start off general and then build towards the specific.
3. The conclusion: this is the easiest part of the essay normally. Most often, all you need to do is go back to the introduction and rephrase it

Get these bits right and the rest of the essay tends to take care of itself.

9. Don’t just practice whole essays

The best way to learn to write essays is to write essays? True or false? My answer is a bit of both.
Yes, you do need to practise writing complete essays, but it may be a mistake to do only that. The different part of essays require slightly different skills. To write an introduction, you need to be able to paraphrase the question. To write a body paragraph, you need to be able to explain ideas. To write a conclusion, you need to be able summarise.
The practical suggestion is to practise writing introductions, body paragraphs and conclusions separately. Focus on skills.

 10. Focus on the question and refocus on the question

I have left this one to last as it is for me the most important idea. Essays go wrong for different reasons. Some of these you may not be able to avoid: the quality of your English may not be good enough yet. The one mistake you can always avoid is that you didn’t answer the question. Too many essays go wrong because candidates didn’t read and think about the question properly.
The practical suggestion: before you write each paragraph, refer back to the question to remind yourself about what you are meant to write about.
It is very easy to get carried away in exams. You may start off on topic, then you have a “good idea” as you write. So you write about that. Sadly, that “good idea” may not fully relate to the question. Big problem.

My sample essay on poverty and aid

This essay which you can download below is intended to be an example of the ideas in this post.

• It is fairly simple in structure.
• It focuses clearly on the question
• I left many of my best ideas out. I concentrated on what I could explain clearly.
• It comes in at only just over 300 words.

English Grammer Synthesis

Combine the following sentences using an appropriate conjunction.
1. He is snobbish. I like him.
2. My mother attended the wedding. My father attended the wedding.
3. He has walked five miles. It is possible that he is tired.
4. I went to the shop. I bought a watch.
5. You must be quiet. You must leave the room.
6. The prisoner fell down on his knees. He begged for mercy.
7. I left home early. I could not get to work on time.
8. Azim works hard. Kabir works harder.
9. You must start at once. You will be late.
10. You are not interested in this offer. I know it.

Answers

1. Though he is snobbish, I like him.
2. Both my mother and father attended the wedding. / Both my parents attended the wedding.
3. He has walked five miles, so he must be tired. / He must be tired because he has walked five miles.
4. I went to the shop and bought a watch.
5. You must be quiet or you must leave the room.
6. The prisoner fell down on his knees and begged for mercy.
7. Though / although I left home early, I could not get to work on time.
8. Azim works hard but Kabir works harder. / Kabir works harder than Azim.
9. You must start at once or you will be late.
10. I know that you are not interested in this offer.

Learn English Interjections

What Are Interjections?

Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included in a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.

An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

Examples of interjections (shaded):

• Hey! Get off that floor!
• Oh, that is a surprise.
• Good! Now we can move on.
• Jeepers, that was close.

Yes and No

Introductory expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are also classed as interjections.

Examples:

• Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
• Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.
• I'm sure I don't know half the people who come to my house. Indeed, for all I hear, I shouldn't like to. (Oscar Wilde)
• Well, it's 1 a.m. Better go home and spend some quality time with the kids. (Homer Simpson)

Phew!

Some interjections are sounds.

Examples:

• Phew! I am not trying that again.
• Humph! I knew that last week. 
• Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.
• Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me, I always feel that I must be wrong. (Oscar Wilde)

Learn English Determiners

In the midst of all the nouns, pronouns, adjectives and articles a student is expected to learn, the determiner is often left by the wayside, untaught or taught incorrectly. The determiner is an important noun modifier which provides introduces and provides context to a noun, often in terms of quantity and possession. Determiners in English precede a noun or noun phrase and include articles, demonstratives, quantifiers and possessives.

Determiners in English

There are many different determiners in the English language.

Articles

Articles are among the most common of the determiners. A, an, and the all express the definiteness and specificity of a noun.
For example, “the” is a definite article, meaning the person using the word is referring to a specific one. On the other hand, “a” or “an” are indefinite articles.

• The dog is barking too loudly.
• A student returned the book.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives, such as this, that, these and those, require a frame of reference in which an individual can point out the entities referred to by a speaker or a writer.

• Do you want this piece of chicken?
• I don't want to go to that movie.

Quantifiers

Quantifiers, such as all, few, and many, point out how much or how little of something is being indicated.

• He took all the books.
• Few of the children wanted to go to the zoo.

Possessives

When referring to an entity that belongs to another, you can use possessives. My, your, their, and its are a few examples.

• Is this your car?
• The dog growled and showed its teeth.

There are many other types of determiners. For instance, cardinal numbers, the numbers that are written out in English, are also included in the class of determiners. Determiners are generally split into two groups—definite determiners and indefinite determiners.

Function of a Determiners

A determiner can take on a number of different meanings and roles in a sentence. The determiner is used in every case to clarify the noun.

• They may be used to demonstrate or define something or someone.

Quantifiers state how many of a thing, in number or expression. A determiner is used to show that the noun indicated is a specific one (that one), not an unspecific one (any).

• They may also state the differences between nouns.

While determiners may have a number of other functions, most of them are related to these two key areas. The list of determiners only numbers about 50 words, and all of these words are commonly used by most individuals. Determiners are not difficult to get the grasp of when contrasted with adjectives, and do not take too long for native English speakers to grasp. After all, how many times have you had trouble deciding whether to say “the” or “a”?

Determining Determiners

How should you choose which determiner to use? For those who were raised speaking the English language, determining the determiner to use is second-nature, since determiners are so often used in front of nouns.
Like the basic parts of speech, determiners are so ingrained into the English language that using them is simple. The same goes for most Indo-European languages (for instance, Romance languages such as Spanish and the Germanic languages such as German).
However, the languages of other countries may not use determiners, or may have sets of rules very different than the English language does. For these individuals, learning how and where to use determiners can be rather difficult.

Determiners and Adjectives

Until recently, English teaching in schools did not take determiners into account. Many determiners were simply lumped into the category of “adjectives,” which works for some but certainly not for all.

• Adjectives have primarily three functions: they modify noun phrases, or complement the object or subject of a sentence.
• The function of a determiner is to express proximity, relationship, quantity, and definiteness.

Determiners are not gradable as are adjectives. For example, a person may be angry, angrier, or the angriest. A person can not be “her-est” or “the-est.”
Determiners are usually necessary (or obligatory) in a sentence, whereas adjectives are not.
Adjectives, unlike determiners, cannot have corresponding pronouns.
Adjectives and determiners are distinct from one another and cannot simply be lumped into the same category.

Learn English Grammer Conjuctions

A conjunction connects two or more sentences, clauses, or parts of clauses. Some of the most common conjunctions in English are and, because, but, for, nor, so, until, when, and yet. 
The two main types of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. There are also correlative conjunctions, copulative conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, disjunctive conjunctions, and final conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that links two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences that are grammatically equivalent. The six words most commonly used as coordinating conjunctions can be remembered with the mnemonic device FANBOYS—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Let’s look at a few examples:

We have a porcupine and a kangaroo. [And links two listed elements that are grammatically equivalent.]

You see yet do not hear. [Yet links two grammatically equivalent actions (see and do not hear) performed by you.]

We bathed the dog, but we couldn’t get him clean. [But links two independent clauses.]

Coordinating correlative conjunctions

Some correlative conjunctions (see below for full definition) can function as joint coordinating conjunctions. For example, neither and nor in this sentence introduce grammatically equal elements, so they work together as coordinating conjunctions:

Neither Joe nor John has any idea what he’s talking about.

Coordinating conjunctions and commas

For coordinating conjunctions, comma use depends on the nature of the linked elements. If a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, it usually should be preceded by a comma (e.g., We bathed the dog, but we couldn’t get him clean). If a coordinating conjunction links two listed elements, it doesn’t need a comma (e.g., We have a porcupine and a kangaroo).

Subordinating conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction is a conjunction that links a dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) to an independent clause—for example:

The city recommends everyone stay inside because the winds could be dangerous.

In this sentence, because links a dependent clause (because the winds could be dangerous) to the main clause (The city recommends everyone stay inside). We know this is subordinating because because the winds could be dangerous could not normally stand alone as a sentence.
Here are some of the most common subordinating conjunctions:

after albeit although as because before except if once since

that though unless until when whenever where whether while

Some phrases also function as subordinating conjunctions. Here are some of the most common ones:

as if as far as as long as as well as even if even though

that inasmuch as in order to in order that so that such that

Other types

Adversative conjunctions

Adversative conjunctions (sometimes known as contrasting conjunctions) are coordinating conjunctions used to express comparisons or contrasts. The element introduced by the adversative conjunction usually qualifies or expresses a caveat with regard to the main clause of the sentence. The most common adversative clauses are but and yet, but still, however, albeit, although, and others are also sometimes adversative.
Let’s look at a few examples of adversative conjunctions:

He’s a shy but loving little boy. [Naples News]

Here, the phrase but loving creates a contrast to what is expected from the adjective shy.

It is a living part of my spiritual life, yet I don’t know if one would call me a religious artist. [Houston Chronicle]

In this sentence, the independent clause introduced by yet adds information to qualify what was expressed in the main clause.

This technology, although not a foolproof way to monitor abusers, might give victims advance warning that danger is approaching. [Hartford Courant]

And in this sentence, the conjunction although introduces information in contrast to the main clause.

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are two or more conjunctions used to link structurally identical parts of a sentence. Here are the most common pairs of correlative conjunctions:

either–or	both–and
neither–nor	not only–but also
if–then	whether–or

Elements linked by correlative conjunctions must have parallel grammatical construction. For example, this is technically incorrect (the conjunctions are underlined):

You’re either going to love his work or hate it. [Thousand Oaks Acorn]

For such a construction to be correct, what follows either and what follows or must be syntactically equivalent. A diagram of this example sentence would look like,

[Subject] either [auxiliary verb phrase] [verb] [object] or [verb] [object].”

The segment following either has an element (the auxiliary verb phrase going to) that the segment following or doesn’t have, so the two segments are not parallel. There are two possibilities for correcting this sentence:

You’re going to either love his work or hate it.

Either you’re going to love his work, or you’re going to hate it.

With sentences this short, correlative conjunctions are usually easy to use correctly. But using more complicated constructions involving correlatives such as not only–but also and if —then can be tricker.
Here’s another technically flawed use of correlative conjunctions:

TTL Inc. is a socially responsible company that is not only known for innovations in engineering but also for its widespread support of education. [UA News]

Here, the verb known should precede not only, as the phrase following but also has no parallel verb.
From the same article, here’s an example of correct correlative conjunction use:

TTL’s passion for advanced education is seen not only in the hours dedicated to volunteering and guest lecturing, but also through endowed scholarships for prospective engineers at The University of Alabama.

Commas and correlative conjunctions

a.  Use no comma when the parallel segments are in the same clause—for example:

It was either really stupid or really brave.

Our diversity is not only a challenge but also a gift.

b.  Use a comma when the two parallel phrases are in separate clauses—for example:

If there’s a truly monumental disaster, then appoint the two last presidents to lend a hand. [WSJ]

c.  But even when two correlative conjunctions are in the same clause, it’s often acceptable to insert a comma before the second conjunction either to create a natural-sounding pause, or to prevent confusion.

Copulative conjunctions

Copulative conjunctions (also known as additive conjunctions) are coordinating conjunctions used to denote addition. The conjunction indicates that the second word, phrase, clause, or sentence contains an additional fact that is related to the earlier word, phrase, clause, or sentence. Some of the most common copulative conjunctions are and, also, as well as, moreover, no less, and plus.
Some copulative conjunctions may be used to start sentences—for example:

My kangaroo can sing. And she’s not too bad. Moreover, she won a Grammy last year. Plus, she’s a pretty good dancer.

In the last two sentences, moreover and plus come close to becoming adverbs modifying the main verbs of their sentences (won and the contracted is). Such adverbial copulative conjunctions should be set off by commas. And does not need to be set apart.
And is the only copulative conjunction that can be used to introduce a second independent clause within a sentence—for example:

We ate lunch, and we took a nap.

Using any other copulative conjunction in place of and would turn this into a run-on sentence.

Disjunctive conjunctions

Disjunctive conjunctions are conjunctions used to separate two or more mutually exclusive options presented in a sentence. When a disjunctive conjunction is used, it usually indicates either that only one of the elements joined by the conjunctions is true, or that none of the elements are true. The conjunctions most commonly used disjunctively are but, either, else, neither, nor, or, other, and otherwise.
Some disjunctive conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions—for example, the either and the or in this sentence:

Poetry is usually either cheap or free.

Here, either and or indicate that poetry is usually one or the other (cheap or free) but not both. Disjunctive pronouns separate these options.
Other disjunctive conjunctions don’t need to be coordinated. For example, the or in this sentence functions on its own:

I might use papier-mà¢ché, or I might use some kind of wood.

The or separates two options, only one of which can be true.
And in this sentence, the neither and the nor are used to indicate that neither option is true:

Neither he nor his lawyer could be reached for comment.

Final conjunctions

Final conjunctions (also known as illative conjunctions) are coordinating conjunctions used to introduce clauses or phrases that draw inferences or conclusions from earlier ones. Some of the most common final conjunctions (some of which are phrases) are as a consequence, consequently, for, hence, so, so that, so then, thus, and therefore.
Some final conjunctions introduce phrases within sentences. For example, this sentence has two:

In turn, this causes other asset prices to fall in those nations, thus worsening their banking systems, and hence leading to credit contraction and capital flight. [NY Times]

The phrase introduced by hence draws an inference from the phrase introduced by thus, which in turn draws an inference from the main clause.
Some final conjunctions introduce clauses within sentences—for example:

Equalize the tax laws so that employer-provided health insurance and individually owned health insurance have the same tax benefits. [Wall Street Journal]

Here, the clause introduced by so that infers what will occur should the action proposed in the imperative-mood main clause come to pass.
A final conjunction may also be used to start a sentence that draws a conclusion from the preceding sentence—for example:

Good writing is always about clarity and insight, precision and accuracy. Therefore, this confusing name calls into question the very quality of the writing instruction that will be given in the new department. [Inside Higher Ed]

The second sentence, introduced by the final conjunction therefore, draws a conclusion from the first sentence.
And here’s one more example:

Our current system provides individuals with little market power in the purchase of health insurance. As a result, they typically pay exorbitant premiums. [The New Republic]

Here, the sentence beginning with as a result shows what the conditions described in the first sentence lead to.

Learn English Grammer Prepostions

Definition:

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object of the preposition.

You have just finished the Modifiers Module. You learned that adjectives tell which one, what kind, how much, and how many about a noun or pronoun. You learned that adverbs tell where, when, how, and to what extent about verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Sometimes the answers to those questions take more than one word. Often those phrases are prepositional phrases.

Which one: The flower in the vase is a peony.
What kind: The umbrella with the polka-dots is Mary Anne's.
Where: We will be going to the movies.
When: My lunch period is after science.
How: You are walking on your tiptoes.

Definition:

A phrase is a group of words working together that does not have both a subject and a verb. Phrases usually act as a single part of speech. (We will get to that part later.)

Prepositions can never be alone, so it makes sense to learn about prepositions in their phrases. Any lone preposition is actually an adverb. A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object of the preposition.
In the previous examples:

In shows the relationship between the flower and the vase.
With shows the relationship between the umbrella and the polka-dots.
To shows the relationship between where we are going and the movies.
After shows the relationship between our lunch and science class.
On shows the relationship between how we are walking and our tiptoes.

Definition:

The object of the preposition is the noun following the preposition that the preposition is relating to something in the sentence.

In the previous examples, the objects are vase, polka-dots, movies, science class, and tiptoes.

Hint:

To find the object of the preposition ask "What?" after the preposition.

The flower in the vase is a peony.

You found in - ask "In what?" Answer - vase. Try it with the other examples.

Definition:

A prepositional phrase is the preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the modifiers between the two.

in (preposition) the vase (object)
with (preposition) the polka-dots (object)
to (preposition) the movies (object)
after (preposition) science class (object)
on (preposition) your tiptoes (object)

Some teachers have their students memorize a list of common prepositions. That can be confusing because sometimes those same words act as adverbs. It is better to understand how they show a relationship.

Some Common Prepositions
Prepositions of time:	after, around, at, before, between, during, from, on, until, at, in, from, since, for, during, within
Prepositions of place:	above, across, against, along, among, around, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, in, inside, into, near, off, on, opposite, out, over, past, through, to, toward, under, underneath
Prepositions of direction/movement:	at, for, on, to, in, into, onto, between
Prepositions of manner:	by, on, in, like, with
Other types of prepositions:	by, with , of, for, by, like, as

Do you need to know what categories they fit into? Not really. It's just a way to sort them. Remembering time, place, direction, and manner might help you remember what prepositions do.

Hint:

The word to is often a preposition, but it is just as often part of an infinitive verb. If the word after to is a verb, to is not a preposition.

Preposition: I want to go to Florida for vacation.
Infinitive Verb: I want to go to Florida for vacation.

Hint:

Think of prepositions as arrows.

→ to, at, for...
← from, next to...
↔ with, between...
↑ above, on...
↓ in, inside, under, below...

Hint:

One of the best ways to understand prepositional phrases is to learn how to diagram sentences.

Practice What You've Learned

Part 1

Directions:

Click on the prepositions in each sentence.

1.

The cherries in that bowl are from the trees in my grandmother's garden.

2.

My sister painted sheep on the walls of her bedroom.

3.

Those mounds on the ground are home to meerkats.

4.

Thomas and his family spend their vacations at the cabin in the woods near the lake.

5.

The third car on the racetrack belongs to the cousin of my neighbor.

6.

You should put the textbooks on the desks in the cabinet in the back of the room.

7.

I would rather have the jeans with the dark blue wash than the jeans with the stone wash.

8.

The cookies at the back of the tray were made from the fresh eggs laid by your chickens.

9.

My cousins from Chicago are arriving at the airport in three hours.

10.

The cars driving in the street outside my bedroom window keep me awake.

Part 2

Directions:

Mark the prepositional phrases in each sentence by clicking each preposition and then the object of the preposition.

11.

We climbed into the cave and down the passageway to find the secret treasure.

12.

The boxes along the wall in the hallway go in your room.

13.

The suitcases with our things were taken to our rooms by a porter.

14.

Is there any film in your camera or is it in the camera bag?

15.

The box with my colored pens in it was left in your desk.

16.

The pitcher for the lemonade is in the dishwasher.

17.

Before the movie, we watched previews for new movies.

18.

The tower with the princess in it was in the forest.

19.

My backpack was beside your desk but is now under Jessie's desk.

20.

The battery in my phone is dead because I forgot to plug it into the charger.

Learn English Grammer Articles

Articles

There are only three articles: the, a and an. They are very small words which cause very large problems if used incorrectly. If, for example, you wanted someone to hand you the book, but you accidentally said a book, the other person might take some time to go shopping for a book they thought you’d like. While one can never have too many books, work doesn’t get done if we go book shopping every time we need to look up a word in the dictionary. Use of an article can also change the meaning of the noun:

dinner = the evening meal

a dinner = an evening meal held for some kind of event

the dinner = a specific evening meal which was held for some kind of event

Uses of Articles

Articles are used to differentiate between things or ideas – usually expressed by nouns. The speaker/writer may be referring to a specific thing or idea, or a general one.
We use the to refer to specific nouns, either singular or plural.

Please hand me the book that’s on the table.

Please hand me all the books that are on the tables.

A and an are used to refer non-specific nouns.

Please hand me a book; any book will do.

Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

Articles should be placed just in front of the noun they’re modifying. However, if the noun is also being modified by one or more adjectives, the article should go in front of the adjective(s).

Please fetch me a sweater.

Please fetch me the brown sweater.

Please fetch me the fuzzy blue sweater.

An should be used before any noun – or any adjective modifying the noun – which begins with a vowel or a voiceless H.

He is a man.

He is an ugly man.

He is an honest man.

Articles can also be used when emphasizing a point.

He had a hard time with the exam.

He had the hardest time with the exam.

Obviously, using the definite article the makes the point very clear.

Definite Article: The

The definite article refers to a noun, either in the singular or plural. It can be used with uncountable nouns. The refers to a specific thing or quantity. It should be placed before the noun, or before the adjective which directly modifies the noun.

Please give me the hammer.

Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.

Please give me the nail.

Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold up this painting.

Please give me the hammer and the nail.

Indefinite Articles: A and An

The indefinite articles are used when we are referring to an unspecified thing or quantity. We use them when we don’t know (or don’t care) which thing we’re talking about.

There once was a sheep.

I don’t know which sheep it was – don’t know its name or where it’s from, or anything about it – so I can’t say the sheep.
We use a before nouns or adjectives which begin with a consonant, or when U sounds like a Y, or O sounds like a W.

A cat

A dog

A university

A young puppy

A one-eyed pirate

We use an before words which begin with a vowel sound or a soft H sound.

An egg

An hour-glass

An antique necklace

This rule also applies to acronyms.

A Society of Writers member was quoted in the article.

A S.O.W. member was quoted in the article.

An S.O.W. member was quoted in the article.

Because S sounds like it begins with a vowel (ess), an should be used in front of it.

The Used With All

In English, the should not come before the word all. They may be used separately, or combined into all the.

At the all birthday parties, food and drinks are served to the guests.

This could be written as: at birthday parties…, at all birthday parties…, or at all the birthday parties….

My father asked me to take the all books off the dining room table.

My father asked me to take all the books off the dining room table.

Unnecessary Definite Article

If the noun is general, an indefinite article – or possibly no article – may be used.

Use the utensil when eating the dinner.

Use the fork when eating your dinner.

Use a utensil when eating dinner.

Give me the liberty or give me the death.

Give me liberty or give me death.

Remember that a noun which has been previously mentioned must be modified by a direct article; however, if the noun is just popping up for the first time, an indirect article should be used.

A child is riding a bicycle along a sidewalk; the child is wearing the helmet.

The first the (in the second clause) is correct because child has already been mentioned; we know the writer is talking specifically about the child who is riding a bicycle. The second the should be replaced by an indefinite article (a) because we don’t know which helmet the child is wearing.
N.B. Sometimes the article will change the meaning of the sentence. For instance, if I wrote “I need to buy a new pen for the school”, it might imply that I have broken one of the school’s pens and need to replace it. However, if I am buying it for myself to use in school, “the” should be removed from the sentence: “I need to buy a new pen for school.”

Most/Some/All Of + Plural Noun Without The

When using the phrases most of, some of, and all of, put the definite article the before the plural noun which is being modified by the phrase.

I want to clean all of rooms in the house before the guests arrive.

The phrase all of should be followed by the article the.

I want to clean all of the rooms in the house before the guests arrive.

Most of people are careful of their health in the winter.

Most of the people are careful of their health in the winter.

Some of vegetables are fresh, but some are frozen.

Some of the vegetables are fresh, but some are frozen.

Using Articles With Pronouns

A pronoun is used to modify a noun; an article is also used to modify a noun. If both are used to modify the same noun, the reader will become confused. Pronouns are words like he, I, we, our, it, her, and their. Articles should not be used to modify pronouns.

Why are you reading the my book?

The and my should not be used together.

Why are you reading my book?

Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to a him.

Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to him.

Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to a ticket man.

Indefinite Article With Uncountable Noun

Uncountable nouns are nouns which are difficult or impossible to count. Uncountable nouns include untouchable things (information, air), things like liquids (milk, wine), and things which are too large or numerous to count (equipment, sand, wood). Because these things can’t be counted, singular articles like a or an should not be used to modify them. Uncountable nouns can be modified by words like some. Alternately, the uncountable noun can be changed to a countable noun.

Please give me a water.

Water is an uncountable noun, and should not be used with the indefinite article, a.

Please give me some water.

Please give me a bottle of water.

Please give me an ice.

Please give me an ice cube.

Please give me some ice.

N.B. Depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable (e.g. hair, noise, time)

We need a light in this room.

We need some light in this room.

Indefinite Article With A Plural Noun

The indefinite articles, a and an, are used to modify singular nouns. When using a plural noun, these two articles are unnecessary.

I have a books in my locker.

I have books in my locker.

I have a book in my locker.

It is also unnecessary to use an indefinite article if there is an adjective in front of a plural noun.

When he is in public, he does an embarrassing things.

When he is in public, he does embarrassing things.

When he is in public, he does an embarrassing thing.

N.B.

When selecting courses, there are a many options to choose from.

A is not necessary in this sentence and should be removed. However, should you want to refer to the specific quantity of options, the sentence can be rephrased to use the definite article the:

You may select courses from the many options.

Unnecessary article

Articles are generally used to refer to specific plural or singular nouns. Plural countable nouns and mass nouns (words which are used as general terms – e.g. animals, people, sadness) do not always require an article. There are no rules to clearly identify when to use an article and when not to; the meaning of the word demonstrates the need for an article.

Cows like to bask in the sun.

Cows is a mass noun; all the cows like to bask in the sun. Sun requires a definite article because there is only one sun.

The cows in the field like to bask in the sun.

Here, we’re talking about a specific group of cows.

All over the world, humans are searching for the happiness.

The article before happiness is not required because happiness is used as a mass noun.

All over the world, humans are searching for happiness.

All over the world, humans are searching for the happiness they believe they deserve.

Because happiness in this sentence is a specific kind of happiness – the kind they believe they deserve – the article is required before happiness.

Farmers would do well to arrange for extra the stores of cattle feed this winter.

Because extra is already modifying the mass noun stores, the article is not required before stores.

Geographical Use of Definite Article The

English uses the definite article the in front of some geographical names but not in front of others. If in doubt, your best bet is to look it up in a dictionary or online. Here’s a general list of guidelines:
Do not use the before the name of:

• most countries or territories (e.g. Canada, China, New Zealand)
• towns, cities or states (e.g. Ottawa, Paris, California/
• streets (e.g. Front Street, Lakeview Avenue, Dogwood Crescent)
• lakes (e.g. Lake Ontario, Lake Placid, Bear Lake)
• bays, where the term bay comes after the name (e.g. the Bay of Fundy)
• mountains (e.g. Mount Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro)
• continents (e.g. North America, Africa)
• islands (e.g. Fiji Islands, Prince Edward Island)

Do use the before the name of:

• rivers, oceans, seas (e.g. the Mississippi River, the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean)
• bays, where the term bay comes first (e.g. the Bay of Fundy, the Bay of Bengal)
• gulfs and peninsulas (e.g. the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Peninsula)
• mountain ranges (e.g. the Rockies, the Dolomites, the Laurentians)
• points on the globe (e.g. the Equator, the North Pole)
• geographical areas (e.g. the Middle East, the South)
• deserts and forests (e.g. the Gobi Desert, the Black Forest)

N.B. Language is always changing. Fifty years ago, Argentina was known as the Argentine, and the Balkan Islands always had the definite article in front of it. In many places, formal writing may accept the use of the word Argentina, and people may say, “I come from Balkan Islands.”

Omission of Articles

Don’t use articles with:

languages and nationalities (e.g. Chinese, English, French, Spanish)

N.B. If you put an article in front of these words, it refers to the people of that country.

sports (e.g. diving, baseball, skiing)

academic subjects (e.g. chemistry, English, philosophy)

I like to play the baseball.

Sports don’t require an article before them.

I like to play baseball.

I like to play with a baseball

Because we’re talking about the actual ball (not the sport), an article is required.

I like to study English.

This sentence refers to the English language.

I like to study the English.

This sentence – because of the article – refers to the English people.

Learn English Direct Speech to Indirect Speech

We can report the words of a speaker in two ways:
(1) In Direct speech: We may quote his actual words in inverted commas by placing a comma before the remark e.g. Hari said, “I am very tired now”.
(2) In Indirect speech: We may report what he said without quoting his exact words e.g. Hari said that he was very tired then.
You would note the following important changes made in changing direct speech to indirect speech in the above examples
1. Use of conjunction ‘that’ before the indirect statement.
2. Pronoun changed from T to ‘he’.
3. Verb ‘am’ changed to ‘was’
4. Adverb ‘now’ changed to ‘then’.
Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech.
Rule 1:
Use of conjunction ‘that’ before the indirect statement except in case of imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences e.g. Hari said that he was very tired then.
It is often omitted incase of verbs such as says, think, agree, promise, mention, notice etc.
Rule 2:
Change in pronouns of first and second person in Direct speech to third person in Indirect speech taking into account the gender of the subject. Thus

e.g. Ram said “I am very busy”.
Ram said that he was very busy.
Note:
(a) In changing pronouns their relation with the reporter and his bearer are indicated rather than with the original speaker, e.g.
Direct Speech: He said to me, “I don’t like you”.
Indirect Speech: He said he didn’t like me.
Direct Speech: She said to him, “I don’t like you”.
Indirect Speech: She said she didn’t like him.
Direct Speech: I said to him, “I don’t like you”.
Indirect Speech: I said i didn’t like him.
(b) If the pronoun he or she stands for different persons then the name of the person refer to can be inserted in brackets after the pronoun.
Sita said to Richa “I like your dress”.
Sita told Richa that she ( Sita) liked her ( Richa’s) dress
Rule 3:
If reporting verb is in Present or Future Tense, the tense of the verb in the reported speech is not changed e.g.
He says “I am busy”.
He says that he is busy.
He will say “I was busy.”
He will say that he was busy
Rule 4:
If reporting verb is in the Past Tense, the tense of the verb in the reported speech is also changed into one of the forms of the past tense Thus the verb changes as per norms given below.

The Present Simple Tense becomes Past Simple Tense
He said “I play football every evening”.
He said he played football every evening.
Present Continuous becomes Past Continuous
He said “I am playing football”.
He said he was playing football.
Present Perfect becomes Past Prefect
He said “I have played football for two years”.
He said he had played football for two years.
Present Perfect Continuous becomes Past Perfect Continuous
He said “I have been playing football for two years.
He said he had been playing football for two years.
Future becomes Conditional
He said “I shall play football next year”.
He said he would play football next year.
Direct and Indirect Speech
Future Perfect becomes Conditional Perfect
He said “I shall have played football for two years next June”.
He said he would have played football for two years next June.
Exceptions to the Above Rules:
(a) If reported speech expresses universal truth or habitual fact the tense of the verb in the reported speech is not changed into the corresponding past.
He said, “Earth goes round the Sun”.
He said that Earth goes round the Sun.
“German is easy to learn”, he said.
He said German is/ was easy to learn.
(b) The reporting verb ‘say’ is changed into ‘tell’ if it is followed by a verb.
Direct Speech: – “We shall go on a picnic” he said to me.
Indirect Speech: – He told me they would go on a picnic.
Direct Speech: – The teacher said to the boys, “You should do your work regu­larly”.
Indirect Speech: – The teacher told the boys that they should do their work regu­larly.
Rule 5:
Words expressing nearness in time or place are changed into words express-

Exception If ‘this, here, now, etc.’ refers to some object, place or time that is present to the speaker, then no change in adjective or adverb is made in the reported speech, e.g. Ram said, “Here is the pen I have been looking for”. Ram said that here was the pen he had been looking for.
(i) Changing Assertive Sentences:
Assertive sentence in the indirect speech are introduced by the conjunction ‘that’ He said to Ram, “You are a good boy”.
He told Ram that he was a good boy.
(ii) Changing interrogative Sentences:
In reporting questions the indirect speech is introduced by such verbs as asked, en­quired, wonder, wanted to know.
(a) If the answer to the question is either yes or no, we use ‘whether’ or ‘if.
He said, “Will you listen to such a man”?
He asked them whether they would listen to such a man.
(b) In negative statement we use ‘do’ and ‘did’. The same is used in negative indirect questions.
“Don’t you like to play football” Hari asked Ram.
Ram asked Hari if he didn’t like to play football.
(iii) Changing Imperative Sentences:
In reporting an imperative sentences like a command or request. The reporting verb ‘say’ or ‘tell’ is changed to a verb expressing a command, advice or request e.g.
Word used in Commands: – order, bid, warn
Word used in Request: – request, implore
Word used in Proposal: – advise, proposed, suggest
Word used in Prohibit: – forbid.
Word used in Entreaty: – entreat, pray, beg.
(c) ‘That’ is commonly not used. If it is used then instead of ‘to’, ‘should’ is placed before the imperative.
(d) The imperative mood is changed into the infinitive.
(e) Rules for change of pronoun must be observed, e.g.
He said to me, “Please give me your book”.
He requested me to give him my book.
“Call the first witness”, said the judge.
The judge commanded them to call the first witness.
He shouted, “let me go”.
He shouted to them to let him go.
Note:
When ‘let’ in direct speech expresses a proposal or a suggestion we use ‘should’ and change reporting verb to ‘propose’ or ‘suggest’.
He said to me “let us have tea”.
He suggested to me that we should have tea.
When let does not express a proposal it should be changed to ‘might or any other verb according to the sense.
He said, “let me have some food”.
He wished that he might have some food.
(iv) Changing Exclamatory Sentences:
When the Direct Speech is introduced by some verb expressing exclamation or wish as, exclaim, cry, wish, confess etc.
All interjections are omitted, but their force is kept by suitable adverbs or expressive words as given below.

The conjunction ‘that’ is used after the reporting verb e.g.
“Alas ! Sohan has failed in his exams,” said Rohan.
Rohan exclaimed with sorrow that Sohan had failed in his exams.
Exclamatory words ‘what or ‘how’ are changed into very, highly, greatly according to the sense e.g.
“What a nice day it is,” she said.
She exclaimed that it was a very nice day.
The teacher said, “Bravo! You have done very well.”
The teacher applauded us saying that we had done very well.
Rani said “How cleaver I am.”
Rani exclaimed that she was very cleaver.
“So help me Heavens!” he cried. “I will never steal again.”
He called upon heavens to witness his resolve never to steal again.
The soldier said, “Curse on the traitor.”
The soldiers bitterly cursed the traitor.

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.	He said he was going to the cinema.

Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple She said, "It's cold."	›	Past simple She said it was cold.
Present continuous She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›	Past continuous She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›	Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech		Indirect speech
will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."	›	would She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can She said, "I can teach English online."	›	could She said she could teach English online.
must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online."	›	had to She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall She said, "What shall we learn today?"	›	should She asked what we should learn today.
may She said, "May I open a new browser?"	›	might She asked if she might open a new browser.

!Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so:-

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"My name is Lynne", she said.	She said her name was Lynne. or She said her name is Lynne.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.

Direct speech (exact quote)	Indirect speech (not exact)
"Next week's lesson is on reported speech", she said.	She said next week's lesson will be on reported speech.

Time change

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting.

Now	+ 24 hours - Indirect speech
"Today's lesson is on presentations."	She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations. or She said yesterday's lesson would be on presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening)	›	that (evening)
today	›	yesterday ...
these (days)	›	those (days)
now	›	then
(a week) ago	›	(a week) before
last weekend	›	the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here	›	there
next (week)	›	the following (week)
tomorrow	›	the next/following day

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-

At work	At home
"How long have you worked here?"	She asked me how long I'd worked there.

Pronoun change

In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:

Me	You
"I teach English online."	Direct Speech She said, "I teach English online." "I teach English online", she said. Reported Speech She said she teaches English online. or She said she taught English online.

Reporting Verbs

Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use asked to report questions:-
For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Lynne told me she felt tired.
!Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Lynne said to me that she'd never been to China.
!Note - We usually use told.
For example: Lynne told me (that) she'd never been to China.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.
These include:-

accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.

Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the party:-

He invited me to the party.

He begged me to come to the party.

He ordered me to come to the party.

He advised me to come to the party.

He suggested I should come to the party.

Use of 'That' in reported speech

In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich.
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich.
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

The sneaky comma

I'm British, so I only tend to place the comma inside quotation marks when it's part of the sentence being quoted.
"I didn't notice that the comma was inside the quotation marks," Lynne said, "but Hekner did."
That said, I read so much American literature, that even I tuck them away sometimes.
Really, no one has set in stone what the rules of the English language are. It's a diverse language, and the rules that exist have arisen through usage, and they can change in exactly the same way, so maybe it doesn't matter, but it's best to be consistent. (Thanks Hekner.)
- See more at: http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.html#sthash.WlUcqWSo.dpuf

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.	He said he was going to the cinema.

Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple She said, "It's cold."	›	Past simple She said it was cold.
Present continuous She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›	Past continuous She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›	Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech		Indirect speech
will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."	›	would She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can She said, "I can teach English online."	›	could She said she could teach English online.
must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online."	›	had to She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall She said, "What shall we learn today?"	›	should She asked what we should learn today.
may She said, "May I open a new browser?"	›	might She asked if she might open a new browser.

!Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so:-

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"My name is Lynne", she said.	She said her name was Lynne. or She said her name is Lynne.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.

Direct speech (exact quote)	Indirect speech (not exact)
"Next week's lesson is on reported speech", she said.	She said next week's lesson will be on reported speech.

Time change

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting.

Now	+ 24 hours - Indirect speech
"Today's lesson is on presentations."	She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations. or She said yesterday's lesson would be on presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening)	›	that (evening)
today	›	yesterday ...
these (days)	›	those (days)
now	›	then
(a week) ago	›	(a week) before
last weekend	›	the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here	›	there
next (week)	›	the following (week)
tomorrow	›	the next/following day

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-

At work	At home
"How long have you worked here?"	She asked me how long I'd worked there.

Pronoun change

In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:

Me	You
"I teach English online."	Direct Speech She said, "I teach English online." "I teach English online", she said. Reported Speech She said she teaches English online. or She said she taught English online.

Reporting Verbs

Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use asked to report questions:-
For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Lynne told me she felt tired.
!Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Lynne said to me that she'd never been to China.
!Note - We usually use told.
For example: Lynne told me (that) she'd never been to China.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.
These include:-

accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.

Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the party:-

He invited me to the party.

He begged me to come to the party.

He ordered me to come to the party.

He advised me to come to the party.

He suggested I should come to the party.

Use of 'That' in reported speech

In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich.
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich.
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

The sneaky comma

I'm British, so I only tend to place the comma inside quotation marks when it's part of the sentence being quoted.
"I didn't notice that the comma was inside the quotation marks," Lynne said, "but Hekner did."
That said, I read so much American literature, that even I tuck them away sometimes.
Really, no one has set in stone what the rules of the English language are. It's a diverse language, and the rules that exist have arisen through usage, and they can change in exactly the same way, so maybe it doesn't matter, but it's best to be consistent. (Thanks Hekner.)
- See more at: http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.html#sthash.WlUcqWSo.dpuf